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Archive for December, 2010

Until a few years ago, being physically challenged was a curse that made life miserable for the individual, by making him dependent on others for basic survival. But things have changed today, thanks to significant advancements achieved in various sciences. Powered with some of the technological marvels of recent times, even physically challenged individuals have become successful in carving a niche for themselves, thus becoming independent against all odds. The world today is largely dependent on computers, therefore not being aware of the tricks of this trade is bound to make a person feel left out. This was the case with all the disabled people until computer devices for the physically challenged were introduced one by one over the last decade.

How do Disabled People use Computers?

Physically challenged individuals require alternative input devices in order to use the computer. These devices range from voice recognition programs to alternative computer keyboards. These computer devices for the physically challenged provide them with adaptive options, in the form of computer hardware and software, which help them in eliminating barriers of disability and using a computer. Let us have a closer look at some of these computer devices for disabled people.

Computer Devices for the Disabled
The computer devices for disabled people provide them with assistive technology devices to use the various machines, including the computer. One such device is the ‘Tongue Drive System’, wherein a small magnet is implanted in the users tongue and the user has to move his tongue in order to move the cursor. Unlike the other parts of the body, which are controlled by brain through the spinal cord, tongue is directly connected to the brain by a cranial nerve. The cursor can also be guided by off-the-shelf trackballs and foot pedals instead of computer mouse. Pointing devices which can be controlled by movement of the eyebrows are also popular among people with disabilities. Among the other computer devices for the physically handicapped, a popular one is the virtual keyboard that can be activated with various ability switches. The ability switches use two techniques to operate the keyboard – scanning and direct selection. Some of these keyboards anticipate the words that are being typed, while some even go further to anticipate the entire phrase, thus making it convenient for people to use a computer. The most useful program is the voice recognition program, wherein the human voice is used to generate equivalent key strokes. This program is designed in such a way that it works only for one individual, whose voice is keyed to the program. Read more on history of assistive technology.

Computer Devices for the Blind
Even blind and visually impaired people have benefited from technology boom. On one hand, tactile keyboards with oversize characters help people who are visually impaired to type without difficulty, while text-to-speech technology helps them minimize the errors by knowing what is being typed. Screen readers, powered with a sound card to provide synthesized speech output of the matter displayed on the screen, is one of the best example of computer devices for the blind.

Advanced technology has made sure that the future for people with disabilities is promising. Computer devices for the physically challenged have helped them learn new skills and thus become independent. Having access to vast amount of information, including information related to various disabilities, stored on the millions of web pages is a boon in itself. In short, computer devices for disabled people have not just helped them to enter the mainstream, but also proved them with a bit of help, they can be as competitive as anyone of us.

Technology has invaded almost every aspect of our lives – from businesses which depends on it to run their processes to education which uses it generously for finding new ways of imparting knowledge as well as increasing its reach.Those who want to enter into the exciting, ever-changing world and work closely with technology should consider a career in IT. There are different types of computer-related degrees and programs which can train you in a specific area of Information Technology. Here’s a quick look at some of the popular computer degree programs that you can consider to start your career in IT. Bachelor of Computer Science: This is one of the sought after computer degrees and an apparent choice for many individuals passionate about computers. But before you jump into it, you need to consider if you have the aptitude for this program. A BS in Computer Science requires above average mathematical and analytical skills. As part of your program, you will be learning complex concepts ranging from algorithms and discreet mathematics to programming languages and networking principles. You can choose from a variety of exciting career options like software engineering, network architecture, database management, etc.A Bachelor of Computer Science degree typically takes about four years to complete, but some colleges also offer it on a fast-track schedule. You can earn this degree on-campus or enroll for online degree at an accredited institution. Computer Engineering: This is an engineering degree that combines elements of both computer science and electrical engineering. This computer degree program is suited for individuals who want to work on the hardware side of computers. Computer hardware engineers are responsible for designing, developing, testing, installing, and maintaining computer hardware. As a result, a computer engineering degree imparts training in electronic engineering, software design and hardware-software integration. The types of courses it covers include computer architecture and organization, digital electronics, circuit analysis, embedded systems, etc. A candidate’s science and math skills need to be strong for this degree as well. Computer Programming: This computer degree is the most pertinent choice for individuals who are singularly focused on programming. A lot of aspiring programmers gravitate towards this program because it combines the study of programming languages with courses on databases, networks, and Internet applications. This type of degree is available at the Associate’s, Bachelor’s as well as at the Master’s level. An Associate’s degree in Computer Programming is the preferred choice for students looking for a quick entry into workforce as it can be earned in two years or less. An Associate’s of Science in Computer Programming degree qualifies graduates for entry-level programming jobs. Programmers or developers, as they are sometimes referred to, are required to convert a software design into a logical series of instructions called code that will make a computer perform a specific task. In addition to writing new programs, programmers also update, repair, and modify existing programs. Computer Technology and Networking: This is another computer degree program that has captured the interest of many students aspiring to become a computer technician. As a computer technician or a support specialist, you help people to use their computers. You install software and tools on machines, fix problems when they arise, and are responsible for maintaining system upkeep. A Computer Technology and Networking degree also trains graduates for the job of a network administrator who designs, installs and supports computer systems in an organization. However, it’s possible that you may have to work as a support specialist before you’re offered the role of a network or systems administrator. This is typically an Associate’s program and can be completed in two years’ time or even less on a flexible schedule from some colleges. Graduates of this program are encouraged to complete additional professional certifications to expand their knowledge and boost their job prospects. Computer Information Systems: This computer program is also available at the Associate’s, Bachelor’s and Master’s level. Depending on the type of degree you earn, you will be responsible for designing, building, and implementing technology in an organization in order to drive its business forward.A graduate degree in the field is more focused on the management of information systems in a company. A Master’s degree will qualify you for the role of an information systems manager, who plans and directs all IT-related activities in his or her firm. An Associate’s degree can help graduates obtain entry-level positions, while more responsible and superior roles are reserved for candidates who have a Bachelor’s Degree in CIS.

The dawn of computers has made life easier for people in a number of ways. We can express our thoughts and ideas better. We can communicate easier with other people wherever in the world they may be. We can even conduct business more efficiently and more quickly. Why, computers have even improved the way we play the dating game.

With the growing popularity of online dating, meeting a member of the opposite sex has never been easier. The days when men and women grappled with the problem of finding a date for Saturday night are long gone. Now all you have to do is to spend a few hours online, maybe even less, and you can find a date instantly.

With online dating, a new world of possibilities has been opened for single men and women. At any time of the day or night, there is a good chance of meeting someone interesting online, probably in the same area that you are in. Romance is perpetually in the air in the free-wheeling world of the internet, virtually unhampered by very little rules and regulations. Everyone seems to be singing that old Paul McCartney song, No More Lonely Nights.

Finding a date on the internet is as simple as ABC. First, you simply select a dating website that you are interested in, list down your personal information then look for someone who conforms to certain criteria that you specify, particularly with regard to age range, gender, location and other personal preferences. You have the option to upload your photo and view the photos of others. But be careful with whom you deal with because there are a lot of people who use fake identifies and convey false information online.

A number of online dating sites have special services that make online interaction better, specifically online chat, webcasts and message boards. Registration is usually fee on some websites while others charge monthly membership fees. However, even the free websites charge a fee if you want to avail of any of their special services.

According to recent figures, online dating is now the most popular online service in America, with $469.5 million revenues in 2004. There are now an estimated 844 lifestyle and dating sites. Among the most popular ones are Yahoo Personals, http://Match.com, American Singles, and eHarmony.

Computer Training courses form the integral part of almost all education and business life these days. It has become an essential tool to assist an individual in the world of information technology. Progressive Training provides various types of computer courses under its computer training program covering Office IT, web design, graphic design, computerised accounts, etc in Ireland. The computer courses differ depending upon the types of training and necessity of the individual and business.Our instructor-lead classroom computer courses create an interactive atmosphere for the students providing a computer to each student. We can also provide one-to-one training on computer courses for the individuals who need personal and special attention on any particular subject. Our onsite training courses cater for one or more staff members of an organisation where we can tailor a course to the business needs.The computer courses program offered in our institution forms a cost effective learning process for everyone. Our specially designed computer training program is divided into three types of courses: Beginners Courses Intermediate Course Advanced CourseBeginners Computer CoursesThe beginner computer course program is introductory course for the new learners who are new to computers and internet. The beginners course on computer which we term Equalskills is handy and informal process for the newcomers to IT. The Equal skills program comprises topics of basic computers, World Wide Web, introduction to desktop, email. Though it is a short term computer course, you will be awarded with certificate after successful completion of the course.We also have beginners courses in MS Office applications incl Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Access, etcIntermediate Computer CoursesThe intermediate level computer course provides training on skills required in any office environment. We can provide the European Computer Drivers License (ECDL) that will prove your competence in computer skills. The certificate that you will get after the completion of intermediate level computer courses will be satisfactorily get into any Irish business world. Irish employers approve the ECDL certificate issued by our organization and the job seekers agree the need of it.The modules covering Intermediate computer courses are: Basic concept of IT Usage of computer and file management Word Processing Spreadsheets Database Presentation Information and CommunicationAdvanced Computer CoursesThe advanced level computer courses is for a person who wishes to bring their skills to the highest level. We offer advanced courses in Office applications, graphic design and web design. We also offer the EDI (JEB) Training Dip in ICT. This programme aims to train the aspirants who want to build their career as computer trainers. We provide qualified and skilled trainer to meet your need end to end regarding computer teaching courses.

A tremendous number of people are able to earn sizable supplemental income by having a moonlighting computer consulting business. But even more importantly, by moonlighting, you can figure out if you enjoy computer consulting before you take the plunge into building a full-time computer consulting business.

Learn True Billable Hours

Moonlighting as a computer consultant will also give you an appreciation of true billable hours. What does this mean? For example, let’s say you spend 10 hours working, but you may only be able to bill for 4. Or you spend 10 hours and can only bill 6 or 7 of these 10 hours. That’s the reality. You can read about it until the cows come home. But unless you experience it firsthand, you will not get the full picture.

What Constitutes Non-Billable Hours?

What takes up those non-billable hours? The other responsibilities of running a business. These include:
Marketing
Business Development
Paperwork
Organization
Billing and Collections
Accounting

Until you experience owning a computer consulting business firsthand, it’s very difficult for you to know whether you’re really going to enjoy it, and whether you’re really cut out for small business computer consulting.

The Benefits to Moonlighting

But the number one benefit of moonlighting while you still have a day job is there’s no pressure on you. If you don’t like computer consulting, oh well, no big deal. But the moonlighting experience gives you a great way to put your toe in the water without making a huge commitment. Plus, you don’t have to bet your family’s financial well-being on the whole thing.

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With all of the resources available to you, you may well ask yourself, “Why do I need a computer expert to maintain my computer?” The short answer is, you don’t. Just like you don’t need a technician to fix your car, repair your furnace, or do any other maintenance or repairs. If you have the knowledge and the time, you can easily repair and maintain your own computer. But be warned, there are several potential “gotchas” involved in maintaining your own computer. If you decide to repair your own automobile, a company won’t sell you a carburetor what will break your car. Unfortunately, that’s not true of computer maintenance. There are many programs out there that either don’t do what they purport to do, perform unnecessary functions, or are just plain dangerous to install. It’s up to you, the computer maintenance technician, to determine what programs you can safely use in what manner. In this article, we’ll discuss some of the programs out there and what the do-it-yourselfer needs to watch out for. Registry Cleaners Websites such as Finally Fast.com and Double My Speed.com have been promoting themselves heavily of late. These (and other) sites offer products to download and install that purport to improve your computer’s performance. These programs are mostly registry cleaners. The Windows registry is simply a database that the operating system uses to store everything it needs to know to run as per your specifications. In addition, it’s available to any other program to write their information in there as well. Since Windows 95, the registry has been the recommended repository for user preferences, settings, and any other variables a program has to remember. Over time the Windows registry will become cluttered with unneeded information, most frequently caused by uninstallation programs not removing all of the data they should. The concept of a registry cleaner is that it will detect and remove these orphan settings, frequently improving computer performance. The problem with registry cleaners is that they will often incorrectly detect a setting as unneeded and delete it, causing problems with either installed programs or the Windows operating system itself. Registry cleaners are good, but you should never blindly take their advice as to what to delete. You should always review each entry to verify that it can be deleted safely. And keep in mind there are freeware applications that do an excellent job of cleaning your Windows registry. Ccleaner is the one recommended by The Computer Psychic. (Go to Google and search for ccleaner.) Anti-Malware Applications Malware (spyware and virus) cleanup and prevention is one of the most important aspects of computer maintenance. If you catch a virus on your system, you leave yourself open to all sorts of mischief – including having files deleted, getting your address book scammed and spam e-mails being sent in your name, and even having your credit card and banking information stolen! Spyware can be just as bad – it typically “watches” what you do on your computer, down to even logging keystrokes, and thus stealing your passwords. In addition to these problems, spyware and viruses are often poorly written, causing performance problems in your system. There are dozens of applications on the market that claim to remove malware from your system. And many of them do a good job. But here’s the rub – many programs that present themselves as anti-virus or anti-spyware are, themselves, viruses and spyware! The Computer Psychic has seen all too many systems where the owner has – with the best of intentions – installed an anti-malware app into their system, only to see the floodgates opened; they find themselves with more popup ads and performance problems than they’ve ever seen before. So how do you make sure you don’t install one of these #$%& programs? First of all, if you get a pop-up message telling you that your computer is infected with viruses and click here to download a virus cleaner, don’t do it! Without exception, these programs are scams. Downloading one of these apps will introduce your system to more viruses than you thought existed. In fact, when you see this window, you’ll be presented with an OK and Cancel button. Don’t click either one! If you click Cancel, it will still install a virus. Instead, click on the little X in the upper right-hand corner to close the window. Secondly, if you use a search engine looking for anti-malware programs, be careful what links you follow. Malware creators will name their applications very similar to – or even exactly the same as – legitimate programs, hoping to confuse you into downloading theirs instead of the good one. For example, if you wanted to download Spybot Search and Destroy (an excellent anti-spyware program) and searched for it in Yahoo, the very first result you’ll find purports itself to be Spybot. Clicking their link takes you to a page that says it’s Spybot Search and Destroy, but is actually an application that acts as a gateway to allow viruses into your system. So, again, you need to take the time to learn what is and what isn’t safe to install. The Computer Psychic has a very easy recommendation. Microsoft has a vested interest in keeping your computer malware-free. If they do a good job of preventing viruses from getting into your system, then that’s one less thing that Apple can beat them up over. Towards that end, in September of 2009, Microsoft released an excellent free anti-malware program named Microsoft Security Essentials (www.microsoft.com/Security_Essentials). In the past, The Computer Psychic has recommended against all-in-one solutions, arguing that no one application can catch everything. But Microsoft Security Essentials is just that good. It does as good a job as – or better than – any other application, or combination of apps, in blocking any type of spyware or virus. Startup Monitors While not as popular as the other system maintenance programs, proper use of a startup monitor can dramatically speed up your computer. A startup monitor will tell you just what programs, drivers and processes load when you start your computer. When you boot up your computer, the operating system will also auto-start many other components – possibly a fax application, printer elements, video or mouse drivers, to name a few. These are good – they are essential for the proper operation of your computer. However, many applications add themselves to the auto-run settings for their own convenience – not yours. For example, programs such as Adobe Reader and Microsoft Office will tell the operating system to pre-load some of their components as Windows starts up. This allows their software to open more quickly when needed. The downside of this is, even if you aren’t actively using their software, your computer is using memory running those components. Better to not pre-load those components; let the software take a second or two longer to load, and speed up your entire system. Another popular use for the startup is for auto-update programs. These apps will periodically check the internet looking for updates. If one is found, the program will present you with a window telling you an update is available. Not only do these apps consume computer resources, they can be an annoyance. In order to easily prevent unwanted software from running automatically, The Computer Psychic recommends a Microsoft application called AutoRuns (http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/sysinternals/bb963902.aspx). Using Autoruns you can decide just what apps you want to run when starting your computer. Once again, though, don’t blindly turn of all apps. Make sure you know what you’re disabling. Summary As you can see, using the tools recommended in this article makes it quite possible for anyone to maintain their computer’s health. But as with anything technical, make sure you know what you’re doing before just tinkering away.

Getting your own computer is almost a requirement today in many areas. Many workplaces allow, or even require, employees to work at home, and often times this requires a personal computer. Students at many schools and universities also find that using a computer can easily augment their studies. Not to mention the huge variety of games you can play on your computer.

In case you haven’t been down to the computer store lately, then you might not be aware that there have been more and more technological advances recently, and deciding which kind of computer to buy can be a confusing choice. If you’d like to buy a computer, but haven’t quite decided if you want a laptop or a desktop, then this article is for you. After reading this, you’ll have a much easier decision. Probably the biggest advantage of getting a desktop is that you can get a much more powerful machine. There aren’t any space limitations, and you don’t need any kind of battery. This means there’s more space for memory, larger hard drives, and empty slots in case you want to upgrade in the future. And with a desktop there is virtually no limit on screen size. The obvious drawback to a desktop is that you can’t take it with you. You will only be able to access it at home, and even then moving it around from room to room can be a hassle. If you work from home, and only from home, this might not be a constraint. But if you need to do some work on the road, this will definitely be a drawback. The biggest selling point of a laptop, of course, is portability. You can pretty much take it with you wherever you go. Many places today offer wireless Internet, so you can hook up pretty much anywhere. And if you need to use your battery, you should have at least three hours of working time, based on what you are using your machine for. Some drawbacks to having a laptop is limitations on size, both on the keyboard, mouse and screen. Some of the biggest laptops have screen of seventeen inches, and this might not be large enough if you need to have several windows open at once. Also, upgrading your laptop by adding memory or an additional hard drive might be a little difficult, and require professional assistance. In short, if you definitely need to do work, or enjoy your machine in various different locations, then buying a laptop is likely the best option. If you only picture yourself doing work at home, then a desktop is probably for you. Of course, if you can afford it, you can get the best of both worlds, and buy one of each.To find the best lenovo laptop price, come on by the lenovo laptop price site today.

One of the biggest problems with computer users is that they really do not understand how their computer actually works. They do not fully comprehend the binary codes, which everyone should understand. They do not understand how the electronics work in their computer; they just do not get it they do not know how things work like the mother board, CPU, hard drive or understand the software or how it all works.Perhaps, worst of all they do not understand operating systems and thus, are beholden to whatever they see on the screen and are fine as long as everything is working and nothing crashes. They do whatever the screen tells them without thinking or considering their alternatives, as they believe they do not have any, ah but they do, they just don’t know it. Everyone should understand the operating system on their computer, these things are not that difficult and once they do, it opens a whole new world. And believe me you do not need a computer degree to understand the operating system on your computer. Of course, if you want to learn about operating systems, principles and the philosophy of how and why they work, I suggest you start at the beginning and learn a little about DOS. Now then, I’d sure like to recommend a very good book to you that will clear up much of the misconceptions that folks have with regards to operating systems and I believe it is a book that will help you with the basics and therefore, an excellent place to start: ”DOS for Beginners; No Experiences Regurgitated” edited by Robbin Markley; 1993

A computer is not just one thing but is consisted of many parts that work together. A desktop computer is a computer intended for use at a single location only. It is usually bulky and consisted of many parts connected together by wires. Here are some of the basic parts of a desktop computer.The CPU or Central Processing Unit. This is considered as the brain of the computer. This is what processed all the information and carries out the commands in your computer. This is regarded as the most important computer part because without this, your computer will cease to function.The RAM or Random Access Memory. This is considered to be the short-term memory of the computer. The bigger memory capacity of your computer’s RAM, the more files you will be able to store and more often, the faster your computer would work.The motherboard. This is the main board in the computer. It contains many chips and circuitry. This is where the CPU and RAM are located.The hard drive. This is where all the computer programs and information are stored.The floppy/CD/DVD drive. Floppy drives are used less and less. This is where floppy disks are put in. CD/DVD drives are prominent today because of the high us of CD’s and DVD’s. Aside from reading CD’s and DVD’s, computers now have the ability to store information on them through a process called “burning.”The monitor. This is the computer screen that displays whatever you are doing on the computer. Today, computer monitors come in different shapes and sizes.The keyboard. This looks like a typewriter and is what you use to type on the computer. This also serves as a control of whatever you are doing on your computer.The mouse. This is used to control the pointer on the computer screen. It has two buttons, left and right, that is used to click and choose things on the computer screen.A sound card found inside a computer allows for the output of audio through a computer’s speakers or headphone. A video card on the other hand allows for the output of video that is displayed in the computer. Using both of these is usually helpful when using your computer for games or for viewing videos.The power supply. This is connected to all computer parts and is what supplies power to all parts of the computer.Aside from the basic computer parts, there are still many other parts that can be found on a desktop computer. You can add a printer to put into hard copy the files on your computer. A speaker, to hear the computer’s audio. A scanner, to put in images into the computer. A webcam, to serve as a computer camera. A modem, used to connect your computer to the internet.You may already know the parts mentioned or may have been familiar with them only now but whichever it may be, you are now ready to get yourself a new computer. Whether you want to get a whole new computer set or just looking to get some parts upgraded or changed, you can’t go wrong with Cheap Shopping Center. Simply go to http://www.cheapshoppingcenter.com and look through this online store. You’ll be sure to find your entire computer needs here without the hassle of going out and searching computer stores one by one. Browse this site and you can get brand new or pre-owned computer parts and accessories at the cheapest prices. You are definitely going to get a bargain at this store without sacrificing quality. So go on, visit http://www.cheapshoppingcenter.com and get that perfect computer for you!

(7483, ‘History of computing Main article History of computing hardware The Jacquard loom on display at the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester England was one of the first programmable devices The first use of the word computer was recorded in 1613 referring to a person who carried out calculations or computations and the word continued to be used in that sense until the middle of the 20th century From the end of the 19th century onwards though the word began to take on its more familiar meaning describing a machine that carries out computations The history of the modern computer begins with two separate technologiesutomated calculation and programmabilityut no single device can be identified as the earliest computer partly because of the inconsistent application of that term Examples of early mechanical calculating devices include the abacus the slide rule and arguably the astrolabe and the Antikythera mechanism which dates from about 150100 BC Hero of Alexandria c 1070 AD built a mechanical theater which performed a play lasting 10 160 minutes and was operated by a complex system of ropes and drums that might be considered to be a means of deciding which parts of the mechanism performed which actions and when This is the essence of programmability The castle clock an astronomical clock invented by Al Jazari in 1206 is considered to be the earliest programmable analog computer It displayed the zodiac the solar and lunar orbits a crescent moon shaped pointer travelling across a gateway causing automatic doors to open every hour and five robotic musicians who played music when struck by levers operated by a camshaft attached to a water wheel The length of day and night could be re programmed to compensate for the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year The Renaissance saw a re invigoration of European mathematics and engineering Wilhelm Schickard s 1623 device was the first of a number of mechanical calculators constructed by European engineers but none fit the modern definition of a computer because they could not be programmed In 1801 Joseph Marie Jacquard made an improvement to the textile loom by introducing a series of punched paper cards as a template which allowed his loom to weave intricate patterns automatically The resulting Jacquard loom was an important step in the development of computers because the use of punched cards to define woven patterns can be viewed as an early albeit limited form of programmability It was the fusion of automatic calculation with programmability that produced the first recognizable computers In 1837 Charles Babbage was the first to conceptualize and design a fully programmable mechanical computer his analytical engine Limited finances and Babbage s inability to resist tinkering with the design meant that the device was never completed In the late 1880s Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a machine readable medium Prior uses of machine readable media above had been for control not data After some initial trials with paper tape he settled on punched cards 160 To process these punched cards he invented the tabulator and the keypunch machines These three inventions were the foundation of the modern information processing industry Large scale automated data processing of punched cards was performed for the 1890 United States Census by Hollerith s company which later became the core of IBM By the end of the 19th century a number of technologies that would later prove useful in the realization of practical computers had begun to appear the punched card Boolean algebra the vacuum tube thermionic valve and the teleprinter During the first half of the 20th century many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for computation However these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers Alan Turing is widely regarded to be the father of modern computer science In 1936 Turing provided an influential formalisation of the concept of the algorithm and computation with the Turing machine Of his role in the modern computer Time magazine in naming Turing one of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century states The fact remains that everyone who taps at a keyboard opening a spreadsheet or a word processing program is working on an incarnation of a Turing machine The inventor of the program controlled computer was Konrad Zuse who built the first working computer in 1941 and later in 1955 the first computer based on magnetic storage George Stibitz is internationally recognized as a father of the modern digital computer While working at Bell Labs in November 1937 Stibitz invented and built a relay based calculator he dubbed the Model K for kitchen table on which he had assembled it which was the first to use binary circuits to perform an arithmetic operation Later models added greater sophistication including complex arithmetic and programmability Defining characteristics of some early digital computers of the 1940s In the history of computing hardware Name First operational Numeral system Computing mechanism Programming Turing complete Zuse Z3 Germany May 1941 Binary Electro mechanical Program controlled by punched film stock but no conditional branch Yes 1998 Atanasofferry Computer US 1942 Binary Electronic Not programmableingle purpose No Colossus Mark 1 UK February 1944 Binary Electronic Program controlled by patch cables and switches No Harvard Mark I IBM ASCC US May 1944 Decimal Electro mechanical Program controlled by 24 channel punched paper tape but no conditional branch No Colossus Mark 2 UK June 1944 Binary Electronic Program controlled by patch cables and switches No ENIAC US July 1946 Decimal Electronic Program controlled by patch cables and switches Yes Manchester Small Scale Experimental Machine Baby UK June 1948 Binary Electronic Stored program in Williams cathode ray tube memory Yes Modified ENIAC US September 1948 Decimal Electronic Program controlled by patch cables and switches plus a primitive read only stored programming mechanism using the Function Tables as program ROM Yes EDSAC UK May 1949 Binary Electronic Stored program in mercury delay line memory Yes Manchester Mark 1 UK October 1949 Binary Electronic Stored program in Williams cathode ray tube memory and magnetic drum memory Yes CSIRAC Australia November 1949 Binary Electronic Stored program in mercury delay line memory Yes A succession of steadily more powerful and flexible computing devices were constructed in the 1930s and 1940s gradually adding the key features that are seen in modern computers The use of digital electronics largely invented by Claude Shannon in 1937 and more flexible programmability were vitally important steps but defining one point along this road as the first digital electronic computer is difficult Shannon 1940 Notable achievements include EDSAC was one of the first computers to implement the stored program von Neumann architecture Die of an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor actual size 126 75 160 mm in its packaging Konrad Zuse s electromechanical Z machines The Z3 1941 was the first working machine featuring binary arithmetic including floating point arithmetic and a measure of programmability In 1998 the Z3 was proved to be Turing complete therefore being the world s first operational computer The non programmable Atanasofferry Computer 1941 which used vacuum tube based computation binary numbers and regenerative capacitor memory The use of regenerative memory allowed it to be much more compact then its peers being approximately the size of a large desk or workbench since intermediate results could be stored and then fed back into the same set of computation elements The secret British Colossus computers 1943 which had limited programmability but demonstrated that a device using thousands of tubes could be reasonably reliable and electronically reprogrammable It was used for breaking German wartime codes The Harvard Mark I 1944 a large scale electromechanical computer with limited programmability The U S Army s Ballistic Research Laboratory ENIAC 1946 which used decimal arithmetic and is sometimes called the first general purpose electronic computer since Konrad Zuse s Z3 of 1941 used electromagnets instead of electronics Initially however ENIAC had an inflexible architecture which essentially required rewiring to change its programming Several developers of ENIAC recognizing its flaws came up with a far more flexible and elegant design which came to be known as the stored program architecture or von Neumann architecture This design was first formally described by John von Neumann in the paper First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC distributed in 1945 A number of projects to develop computers based on the stored program architecture commenced around this time the first of these being completed in Great Britain The first to be demonstrated working was the Manchester Small Scale Experimental Machine SSEM or Baby while the EDSAC completed a year after SSEM was the first practical implementation of the stored program design Shortly thereafter the machine originally described by von Neumann s paperDVACas completed but did not see full time use for an additional two years Nearly all modern computers implement some form of the stored program architecture making it the single trait by which the word computer is now defined While the technologies used in computers have changed dramatically since the first electronic general purpose computers of the 1940s most still use the von Neumann architecture Computers using vacuum tubes as their electronic elements were in use throughout the 1950s but by the 1960s had been largely replaced by transistor based machines which were smaller faster cheaper to produce required less power and were more reliable The first transistorised computer was demonstrated at the University of Manchester in 1953 In the 1970s integrated circuit technology and the subsequent creation of microprocessors such as the Intel 4004 further decreased size and cost and further increased speed and reliability of computers By the late 1970s many products such as video recorders contained dedicated computers called microcontrollers and they started to appear as a replacement to mechanical controls in domestic appliances such as washing machines The 1980s witnessed home computers and the now ubiquitous personal computer With the evolution of the Internet personal computers are becoming as common as the television and the telephone in the household citation needed Modern smartphones are fully programmable computers in their own right and as of 2009 may well be the most common form of such computers in existence citation needed Stored program architecture Main articles Computer program and Computer programming The defining feature of modern computers which distinguishes them from all other machines is that they can be programmed That is to say that a list of instructions the program can be given to the computer and it will store them and carry them out at some time in the future In most cases computer instructions are simple add one number to another move some data from one location to another send a message to some external device etc These instructions are read from the computer s memory and are generally carried out executed in the order they were given However there are usually specialized instructions to tell the computer to jump ahead or backwards to some other place in the program and to carry on executing from there These are called jump instructions or branches Furthermore jump instructions may be made to happen conditionally so that different sequences of instructions may be used depending on the result of some previous calculation or some external event Many computers directly support subroutines by providing a type of jump that remembers the location it jumped from and another instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction Program execution might be likened to reading a book While a person will normally read each word and line in sequence they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest Similarly a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in some section of the program over and over again until some internal condition is met This is called the flow of control within the program and it is what allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention Comparatively a person using a pocket calculator can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two numbers with just a few button presses But to add together all of the numbers from 1 to 1 000 would take thousands of button presses and a lot of timeith a near certainty of making a mistake On the other hand a computer may be programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions For example mov 0 sum set sum to 0 mov 1 num set num to 1 loop add num sum add num to sum add 1 num add 1 to num cmp num 1000 compare num to 1000 ble loop if num lt 1000 go back to loop halt end of program stop running Once told to run this program the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human intervention It will almost never make a mistake and a modern PC can complete the task in about a millionth of a second However computers cannot think for themselves in the sense that they only solve problems in exactly the way they are programmed to An intelligent human faced with the above addition task might soon realize that instead of actually adding up all the numbers one can simply use the equation and arrive at the correct answer 500 500 with little work In other words a computer programmed to add up the numbers one by one as in the example above would do exactly that without regard to efficiency or alternative solutions Programs A 1970s punched card containing one line from a FORTRAN program The card reads Z 1 Y W 1 and is labelled PROJ039 for identification purposes In practical terms a computer program may run from just a few instructions to many millions of instructions as in a program for a word processor or a web browser A typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions per second gigahertz or GHz and rarely make a mistake over many years of operation Large computer programs consisting of several million instructions may take teams of programmers years to write and due to the complexity of the task almost certainly contain errors Errors in computer programs are called bugs Bugs may be benign and not affect the usefulness of the program’)